A Tad Bit Antsy

Nature exhibits many unsuspecting and unusual symbiotic relationships, to which all are not beneficial to both parties. The different symbiotic relationships include commensalism, mutualism, and parasitism. Parasitism is the negative end of the spectrum whereby one symbiont benefits at the cost of another. An explicit example of parasitism is the Cordyceps fungus with various species of forest ants.

The Cordyceps fungus varies widely over the large array of arthropods, most of which are species / host specific. Ants in particular are especially susceptible to the fungus which is able to wipe out entire colonies in a matter of weeks. It is estimated that approximately 8 million ants can occupy a single hectare in a forested environment; this may partially explain why Cordyceps is more prevalent in forested locations. Currently is it hypothesised that Cordyceps may be responsible for the population regularity and stability in arthropod species in tropical forest environments, for the reason that no one species gains the upper hand so to speak. Cordyceps, like most other fungi releases spores to reproduce with an array of different methods (Evans, 1982).

Figrure 1. Forest ant infected with Cordyceps fungus. Photographer: L. Austin (2003)

Once an individual ant has become infected they can start to show symptoms, typically in the change of behavioural patterns. Their focus turn to attacking themselves, almost in an attempt to rid their bodies of the crippling fungus. It almost seems to take control of the ants as it forces them to head to higher ground. This is advantageous to the fungus in terms of reproductive success, dispersal and infection. The individual soon dies in a with its mandibles tightly locked around any structure that will prevent it from falling, after several weeks the reproductive structure of the Cordyceps erupts from the back of the ants head growing into extraordinary arrangements. Some ant species have, by some means, come to recognise infected individuals and will carry and dump the infected away from the colony. Obviously this is to prevent the remainder of the colony from becoming infected (Holder and Keyhani, 2005).

There are thousands of varieties of Cordyceps to which most specialise on a single species of arthropod. Virtually nothing can save an individual once infected though some ants have come to recognise the symptoms of Cordyceps and will dispose of infected individuals. This is generally advantageous and poses minimal risk to other arthropods it is species specific. However, if the same species of ant is within close proximity to the colony that is disposing of ants they may become infected.

References:

EVANS, H. 1982. Entomogenous fungi in tropical forest ecosystems: an appraisal. Ecological Entomology, 7, 47-60.

HOLDER, D. J. & KEYHANI, N. O. 2005. Adhesion of the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria (Cordyceps) bassiana to substrata. Applied and environmental microbiology, 71, 5260-5266.

Figure 1. L. Austin (2003) Forest ant infected with Cordyceps fungus.  https://www.utexas.edu/courses/zoo384l/sirena/species/fungi/

Video with thanks to BBC: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XuKjBIBBAL8

The Goby and Pistol shrimp… Nature’s guide dog

The sea floor can be an unforgiving place when you’re a small crustacean barely larger than the size of a human finger. The Pistol shrimp has formed a mutualistic relationship with the goby fish as it is almost completely blind. The goby acts as a "guide dog", so to speak, alerting the shrimp of any danger nearby by keeping a point of constant contact with its antenna. More than one species of goby share relationships with shrimps, so in this post I will focus on the Yellow Watchman Goby (Cryptocentrus cinctus) and the Tiger Pistol Shrimp (Alpheus bellulus).

Figure 1. Yellow Watchman Goby (Cryptocentrus cinctus) standing guard while the Tiger Pistol Shrimp (Alpheus bellulus) excavates the burrow. Note the iridescent blue spots on the goby. Photographer: Anonymous 

The pistol shrimp spends a large portion of its time constructing and maintaining small channels and tubes beneath the sandy rubble sea floor. The pistol shrimp is almost blind due to a permanent sheath that covers its eyes and relies largely on its goby partner to do the seeing. The goby simply stands guard using its modified pectoral fins to sit on the sea floor and keep watch for danger. The shrimp generally keeps a point of contact with the goby via antennae whilst shifting rubble to the exterior of the pair’s hideout. The shrimp rarely ventures outside of the retreat and if it does so the goby attends to its side allowing the constant contact. The shrimp has little reason to leave the burrows except short trips to a collect algae which grows in close proximity to the burrows entrance. The goby will rarely leave the shrimps side except when in search of food; the goby’s main food source are small animals which are found by sifting through the sandy rubble (Polunin and Lubbock, 1977).

The pistol shrimp is equipped with a large modified claw that can generate powerful blows that stun prey items within short range; so powerful in fact it is often described as ripping the water apart. The claw can shut at speeds of one hundred kilometres per hour creating a cavitation bubble. In certain parts of the bubble temperatures exceed 5000 degrees kelvin, which are comparable to temperatures on the sun’s surface; light is also generated by the implosion of water caused by the negative pressure of the bubble. The claw is only effective at short range as the shrimp has extremely limited eye sight due to a protective sheath that is believed to evolve to protect the shrimps eyes from the powerful blows (Torres et al., 2007).

Figure 2. Diagram of Pistol shrimp's claw.
 Photographer: Knowlton and Moulton, (1963). 

Marine environments are filled with predators of all shapes and sizes and if organisms are to survive they must do so by any means possible, just as the goby and shrimp have struck up their mutualistic relationship. The below videos shows how the goby and shrimp stay in with each other and also how the pistol shrimp can generate such powerful blasts from its modified claw.

Video with thanks to FantasticAnimal. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aSTk2pui5X4

Video with thanks to Earth Unplugged. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QXK2G2AzMTU

References:

POLUNIN, N. V. & LUBBOCK, R. 1977. Prawn‐associated gobies (Teleostei: Gobiidae) from the Seychelles, Western Indian Ocean: systematics and ecology. Journal of Zoology, 183, 63-101.

TORRES, J., WASHINGTON, K., WONG, S., ZARZECKI, M., CHENG, Y. & DIEZ, F. Velocity Measurements of a Pistol Shrimp's Micro Water Jet Using High Speed PIV.  APS Division of Fluid Dynamics Meeting Abstracts, 2007.

Figure 1. Anonymous (n.d) Yellow Watchman Goby (Cryptocentrus cinctus) and Tiger Pistol Shrimp (Alpheus bellulus). https://www.tumblr.com/search/Yellow+watchman+goby. Retrieved on 26/03/2015.

Figure 2. Knowlton and Moulton. 1963. Biol. Bull. 125:311-331. Diagram of Pistol Shrimp's claw. http://www.dosits.org/audio/marineinvertebrates/snappingshrimp/. Retrieved on 26/03/2015.

Oak Tree and Sneaky Gall Wasps

The Gall wasps are a member of the Cynipoidea family distributed through Europe and North America, typically varying in size between 1 to 8 mm. The wasp is entwined in a parasitic symbiotic relationship with the oak tree. They may infect multiple species of trees though here we will be focusing on the oak tree. A single oak tree can be infested with up to 70 different species of gall wasp which can be harmful to the oak tree. (Askew, 1984)

In spring the female wasps search for sites in which to inject their eggs. The base of a successfully fertilised oak tree flower is the ideal location for a female wasp to inject her eggs; the female thrusts her ovipositor into the base of the flower and injects only one egg. The genetics of the acorn are affected by the young wasps as immature acorns grow into galls. The gall is a protective growth that is caused by the immature larval secretions and form a large array of distorted structures. Each species of wasp has characteristically different shape and sized galls which the young larvae feed on; this causes the galls to become shrivelled and brown.

Figure 1. Acorn infected with a single mature gall. Photographer: Justine Aw (2013)

Autumn promotes the loss of the oak trees leaves and acorns along with the galls. The winter following brings harsh freezing condition covering the galls in ice until the beginning of spring. The ice melts and the adult gall wasps emerge after 9 months trapped inside and only live for a few weeks to seek another oak to lay eggs (Stone et al., 2002).

Another type of parasitic gall wasp Megastigmus trisulcus has evolved to take advantage of this phenomenon and instead of producing its own galls it steals them from other species of gall wasp. It is specialised with a highly equipped drill, the tip being covered in metallic zinc for a sharp cutting edge. It is then inserted into the gall, directly into the larvae of the other wasp with a microscopic egg injected into the host larvae. The parasitic larvae then eventually kills the host and take its place in the gall for the duration of the seasons until spring and emerges as the host would have (Flett et al., 2011).

This is a great example of evolutionary adaptation and survival success. One can only imagine the kind of environmental pressures that would have prompted such a specialised piece of equipment. It is clear that these three species have a high dependency on the others for their own survival.

References:

ASKEW, R. 1984. 8. The Biology of Gall Wasps.

FLETT, H., AUSTRALIA, H. & BOARD, M. V. C. 2011. Establishment of Citrus Gall Wasp Parasites in the Murray Valley Region, Horticulture Australia.

STONE, G. N., SCHÖNROGGE, K., ATKINSON, R. J., BELLIDO, D. & PUJADE-VILLAR, J. 2002. The population biology of oak gall wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae). Annual review of entomology, 47, 633-668.

Figure 1. AW, J. 2009.  Acorn infected with a single mature gall. Accessed 22/03/2015 from http://www.notcot.com/archives/2013/08/gall-wasp.php

Video with thanks to BBCWorldwide. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CzXccvoJThI

Cunning Crabs

Survival in the marine environment is a daily struggle for a large range of prey item species. The pressures placed against sea creatures drive them to evolve and adapt skills and various methods of survival. A species of hermit crab (Eupagurus bernhardus) has formed a symbiotic relationship with a species of sea anemone (Calliactis parasitica) as a strategy of perception and protection against predators. These omnivorous detritivores range from the arctic water of Iceland, extending south as far as Portugal occupying small rock pools and oceanic waters to depths of 140 meters; larger individuals tend to be located in deeper waters (Hazlett, 1981).

Figure1. Hermit crab Eupagurus bernhardus paired with Calliactis parasitica. Photographer: Anonymous (2004)

Hermit crabs are a tasty treat to hungry predators such as the octopus which exhibits a large bird like beak with extreme crushing force that can pierce the shell of a hermit crabs with ease. Hermit crabs have formed an unsuspecting mutualistic relationship with the anemones which was first distinguished by scientists as parasitism, but later corrected to mutualism. The reason this relationship is successful is the sting of the anemone which deters the octopus from further attempting to eat the crab. Once the tentacles trap the hermit crab and anemones, they receive a nasty deterring sting, and the octopus lets go and the crab remains unharmed. These two species are considered permanent partners once paired, and is uncommon to see them apart from one another (Ross, 1960).

Figure2. Hermit crab camouflaged by anemones.Photographer: Anonymous (2006)

These cunning crabs poses perfected methods of persuasion; a coaxing tickle is used to release the anemone’s pedal disc which is used to lock onto substrates and surfaces, (McFarlane, 1969). The crab then strategically places the anemone onto its shell until it re-adheres ensuring an evenly distributed and balanced weight is maintained on its shell; it is common for the exterior of the shell to be covered in multiple anemones for maximised protection and camouflage. As the hermit crabs increase in size they require larger accommodating shells and transfer these anemones across to new homes. (Brooks, 1989)

The anemones greatly benefit from this relationship from the mobility factor allowing access to a larger range of food sources. The anemones main source of food are scraps from the hermit crab as they float past. The below video demonstrates the crabs ability to acquire anemones and its defensive benefits.

http://www.tubechop.com/watch/5401055 

References:

BROOKS, W. R. 1989. Hermit crabs alter sea anemone placement patterns for shell balance and reduced predation. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 132, 109-121.

HAZLETT, B. A. 1981. The behavioral ecology of hermit crabs. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 1-22.

MCFARLANE, I. 1969. Co-ordination of pedal-disk detachment in the sea anemone Calliactis parasitica. Journal of Experimental Biology, 51, 387-396.

ROSS, D. 1960. The association between the hermit crab Eupagurus bernhardus (L.) and the sea anemone Calliactis parasitica (Couch).  Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. Wiley Online Library, 43 57.

Figure 1. Anonymous (2004). Hermit crab Eupagurus bernhardus paired with Calliactis parasitica. http://wildlife-archipelago.gr/wordpress/marine-inverts/common-hermit-crab-pagurus-bernhardus/, retrieved 10/03/2015.

Figure 2. Anonymous (2006). Hermit crab camouflaged by anemones. www.alamy.com, retreived 10/03/2015.